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Women and Children’s Health

Preventing and Responding to Violence Against Women and Girls in Australia

Executive Summary

Gender-based violence in Australia disproportionately affects women and girls, particularly among those living with a disability, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander, culturally and linguistically diverse and LGBTQIA+ communities. Gender-based violence is the outcome of persistent inequality and manifests as domestic violence, sexual harassment and assault, coercive control, forced marriage and female genital mutilation. All forms of gender-based violence are devastating for victim-survivors and have cumulative effects that are long-lasting and can result in intergenerational trauma. They are designed to incite fear, control and silence the victim-survivor, preventing them from seeking help and resulting in under-reporting of true prevalence. The Australian federal government has established frameworks and action plans on all forms of gender-based violence and in conjunction with state government and non-government organisations, has sought to raise community awareness on recognising forms of gender-based violence and how perpetrators and victim-survivors can seek support. The dissemination of these frameworks and delivery of recommended interventions is greatly limited by under-staffed and under-resourced community support services, education and empowerment programs. Education programs on domestic violence, sexual assault, coercive control and female genital mutilation have introduced to select populations such as universities, frontline workforce and community workplaces however delivery remains patchy and a lack of culturally safe education programs specifically relating to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander, culturally and linguistically diverse and LGBTQIA+ communities persists. Victim-survivor empowerment programs are even fewer and should be integrated into all gender-based violence community and online support programs. Frontline workers such as medical staff, social workers, police officers, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health workers and disability support workers require more intensive training as part of professional development on recognising and responding to gender-based violence, with particular focus on subtle forms such as coercive control and lesser understood forms such as female genital mutilation and responding to violence within marginalised groups. Australia should look to other countries to critically analyse the way Australian gender-based violence interventions are delivered now and could be reformed in the future. Criminalisation can be an important tool to increase awareness and recognition of the severity of gender-based violence however debate often overshadows the need for greater resources and funding for support programs. Female genital mutilation reflects additional complexities in understanding and responding to needs within culturally and linguistically diverse communities in Australia and must engage community members, leaders and victim-survivors in designing culturally sensitive interventions and the delivery of education toolkits. Australia must also recognise that each community is unique, therefore a ‘one-size-fits-all’ gender-based violence approach is not appropriate. Members, leaders and victim-survivors within each community must be actively involved in governance at all levels to ensure this is avoided. Across all forms, community awareness, education and empowerment programs should be delivered with an emphasis on women’s leadership and governance with education on how men can be effective allies in the fight against gender-based violence.

Introduction

Gender-based violence (GBV) includes any form of emotional, physical, sexual or financial abuse that causes harm to a particular gender.1 In 2015 the Australian Federal Government had declared that violence against women and girls had become a national crisis and needed immediate intervention.2 Violence against women and girls is the primary form of GBV in Australia and those of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds are the most at risk.1 There are many types of GBV, including but not limited to domestic violence, sexual harassment and assault, domestic violence, coercive control, forced marriage and female genital mutilation.3 One in 6 Australian women have experienced domestic abuse compared to 1 in 17 men, and 1 in 6 women have experienced sexual assault compared to 1 in 25 men.1 Studies show that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women are 35-80 times more at risk of experiencing GBV than the average non-Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women.1 Addressing the different dimensions of GBV is the first step in preventing violence against women and girls.4 This report will cover the primary forms of GBV in Australia, discuss key risk factors and analyse evidence-based interventions to protect Australian women and children from GBV in the future.

Domestic and Family Violence

‘Domestic Violence’ or ‘Family Violence’ is used interchangeably in most literature. ‘Domestic Violence’ is violence that occurs within the family.5 However, in some Australian state laws, such as the Domestic and Family Violence Protection Act in Queensland,
violence between intimate partners is considered “domestic violence”. 5 Whereas ‘family violence’ refers to violence between family members other than adult intimate partners and between informal carers and cared-for people. In contrast, ‘family violence’ refers to violence among members of the same family other than adult intimate partners and between informal carers and those they care for. Domestic violence in Australia, former spouses or partners commit 47% of domestic violence.5 Additionally, more than 90% of domestic violence incidents are directed at women, making it a gendered issue; domestic violence research is primarily concerned with violence against women.6 There are multiple factors that contribute to gender-based family and domestic violence in Australia. Poverty and socioeconomic disparities can exacerbate the risk of domestic violence. Economic hardships and financial instability can intensify household stress, increasing tensions and conflicts. When resources are limited, power imbalances may be amplified, and women may face economic dependence on their abusive partners. Financial constraints can create barriers to leaving abusive relationships, as women may lack the necessary resources and support networks to establish independent lives.6 Another factor that contributes to domestic violence is trauma and abuse experienced during childhood. When individuals have survived traumatic events or endured abuse in their formative years, it can have profound and lasting effects on their psychological and emotional well-being. These individuals may become more prone to perpetrating domestic violence in adulthood, as they may unintentionally replicate the harmful behaviours they witnessed or were subjected to.7 Cultural and social norms also play a significant role in perpetuating patriarchal gender roles, contributing to the prevalence of domestic violence. These norms establish expectations, behaviours, and beliefs regarding gender roles, power dynamics, and societal relationships. As a result of patriarchal social structures, men are often expected to hold positions of dominance and power, while women are assigned subordinate roles. Such norms can create an environment where power imbalances are normalised, which justifies and perpetuates violence against women.8 Specific populations are particularly vulnerable to domestic violence, and disproportionately affect women and children. Women, in particular, face higher rates of physical and sexual violence and psychological abuse. This vulnerability stems from various societal factors, including gender inequality, power imbalances, and traditional gender roles perpetuating harmful beliefs and behaviours. Women may be targeted due to perceptions of their subservience, limited agency, or as a means of exerting control and dominance.9 Children are also at heightened risk of domestic violence due to their dependence on caregivers and limited ability to protect themselves. They may be exposed to witnessing violence between their parents or caregivers, resulting in physical and emotional harm. The trauma experienced during childhood can have long-term effects on their overall well-being and may perpetuate cycles of violence in future relationships.9 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people face a higher risk of domestic violence due to structural and historical factors. These communities often experience higher rates of socioeconomic disadvantage, discrimination, and intergenerational trauma resulting from colonisation and the ongoing impacts of colonisation. These factors contribute to an increased vulnerability to domestic violence within these communities.10 The LGBTQIA community also faces an elevated risk of domestic violence. Stigma, discrimination, and marginalisation experienced by individuals within this community can lead to heightened vulnerability. These factors may isolate LGBTQIA individuals from support networks and hinder their ability to access resources or seek help. Additionally, perpetrators may exploit societal biases and target individuals based on their sexual orientation or gender identity to exert power and control.11

Key challenges
The 2016 Australian Bureau of Statistics Personal Safety Survey revealed that around 39% of Australians aged fifteen or older had experienced sexual or physical violence from a former or current partner.12 Extensive research, such as the study conducted by Stuart et al. in 2013, has thoroughly documented the detrimental effects of Family and Domestic Violence, including physical harm, depression, suicide, and post-traumatic stress disorder.13 Shockingly, it is estimated that more than 60% of Family and Domestic Violence cases in Australia go unreported to the police, as highlighted by Morgan and Hulme in 2019.14 Considering the accessibility of domestic violence support services, including shelters, counselling and legal aid, remains a challenge, especially in rural areas and remote areas. Limited resources and the lack of specialised services for specific populations prevent victims from seeking help and finding appropriate support.15 In addition, as domestic violence is a violation in the private sphere, the intimate nature of family relationships makes the State or public authorities reluctant to intervene.16

Analysis of Interventions
In Australia, domestic violence is considered to be a form of gender-based violence and an abuse of power in intimate relationships.17 The Australian Government recognises that the government alone cannot effectively address the problem and that partnerships are needed to work together to eliminate domestic violence. In November 1997, Australia’s Heads of Government formally adopted the Partnerships Against Domestic Violence program.18 A strategic partnership between the Commonwealth, States and Territories to try out new approaches, broaden and share knowledge, and develop and document practical experiences that are useful in preventing and responding to the occurrence of domestic violence.19 In June 2004, the Council of Australian Governments drafted the National Framework on Aboriginal Family Violence and Child Protection, which provides a strong legal basis for resolving Aboriginal domestic violence issues.20 While the establishment of partnerships and frameworks is a positive step, the effectiveness of their implementation and outcomes should be evaluated. Assessing the extent to which these initiatives have led to substantial changes, reduced domestic violence rates, and improved support for victims and survivors is crucial.
The 2006 Intergovernmental Summit on Violence and Child Abuse in Aboriginal Communities provided a solid impetus for developing a national policy against domestic violence, which guides addressing and tackling domestic violence in all states and territories. In addition, the Department of Family, Community Services and Aboriginal Affairs coordinates and funds various activities to prevent and intervene in family violence.21 Coordinating and funding various activities by the Department of Family, Community Services, and Aboriginal Affairs demonstrates a commitment to domestic violence prevention and intervention. This shows recognition of the need for ongoing efforts to combat domestic violence and support affected individuals. These measures implemented by the Australian Government to address family and domestic violence demonstrate recognition of the seriousness of the problem and the need for collaborative efforts. However, ongoing monitoring, evaluation and adjustment of these measures are necessary to ensure they remain relevant and effective in addressing domestic violence in Australia. Collaborative efforts between government agencies, community organisations and individuals are essential to creating lasting change and eliminating family and domestic violence.

Sexual Harassment and Sexual Assault

In Australia, the issue of violence against women and children is epidemic in scope. While sexual violence can happen to anyone, it is a gendered issue, disproportionately impacting women, and children.22 Every ten days, a woman loses her life to an intimate partner.23 Australia experiences significant gender-based violence against women, especially sexual harassment, and assault. In Australia, sexual assault is defined as any physical contact or attempted physical contact of a sexual nature with another person when that person refuses to consent, consents under duress or intimidation, or is unable to consent due to youth, temporary or permanent incapacity, or familial ties.24 Any unwanted or undesired sexual behaviour that raises the chance that the person being harassed will feel offended, embarrassed, or intimidated is considered sexual harassment.25 Sexual assault and harassment are serious crimes that can have devastating, cumulative and long-lasting effects on the lives of victims and survivors, their families, and communities.

Key challenges
Australia has an excessively high rate of sexual harassment and assault. In 2019, there were 22,337 female victims of sexual assault reported to the police, compared to 4,378 male victims, according to the Australia Bureau of Statistics (ABS).26 Lack of reporting, coercion, education, and safety are among the key issues that women in Australia who have experienced or may suffer various types of gender-based violence will face. Rates of sexual assault and harassment are particularly higher for Indigenous women, young women, pregnant women, women who are divorcing their partners, women who are disabled, and women who are struggling financially.27 The Australian Institute of Health and Welfare reported in 2018, 1 in 6 (1.6 million) Australian women had experienced physical and/or sexual violence by a cohabiting partner since age 15.28 In 2019, there were 1,307 female victims of sexual assault who reported an incident that occurred 20 years or more ago, of those victims 55% were aged under 10 years when the incident occurred.26 The New South Wales Government reported that in Australia, over 85% of women who experienced aggravated sexual assault did not report it to police.29

Analysis of Interventions
In Australia, there are a range of initiatives to reduce the prevalence of both sexual harassment and sexual assault within the country. Each of these programmes, policies and frameworks have been designed and executed within communities to prevent these forms of gender-based violence. While laws criminalising sexual assault are primarily the responsibility of states and territories, the scale and severity of sexual violence across Australia make this a nationally significant issue that necessitates a nationally coordinated response. The Australian Government introduced the Sexual Violence Community Awareness Activities in 2018.30 This strategy targets the prevention of sexual violence and sexual harassment at a national level. Through targeted community programmes, this initiative promotes informed consent, bodily autonomy, and respectful relationships. Aiming to strengthen all sectors to address sexual harassment and ensure women are safe at work, while studying, in public and online. Through government aide, this initiative allocated $1.5 million for Universities Australia to develop a comprehensive package of sexual harassment and violence prevention materials to distribute to its member universities to target university students.30 University students experience high rates of sexual violence on campus.31 Providing funds to target students with education and awareness on body safety and sexual violence on campus is a crucial preventative step. However, throughout this initiative there was little evidence of inclusion for diverse cultures within Australia. There are no clear adaptations for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander victims or education for those families to prevent the high rates of sexual violence experienced by this population. This initiative should include catered educational services for culturally diverse university students and educators. Equipping students and staff with responsive and preventative techniques may mean the difference between incidents being reported and cases being reduced on campus.
Sexual harassment within the workplace is an issue the Respect@Work aim to reduce. The Australian Human Rights Commission and the Respect@Work Council created the Respect@Work website in 2015.32 Assembling extensive resources to assist people and organisations in better understanding, preventing, and dealing with workplace sexual harassment. Respect@Work has a range of positive aspects for preventing and responding to sexual harassment within the workplace. This initiative has resources for both companies and individuals. Providing this space for employees who are experiencing or have experienced workplace sexual harassment allows them to feel heard and protected. This website demonstrates a responsive approach to workplace violence through call centres, help lines, and physical addresses to visit. However, the steps to declare and record the workplace sexual harassment includes questions such as the seriousness of the conduct, whether the conduct was continuous or repetitive, the role, influence or authority of the person engaging in the conduct and other relevant circumstances.32 Outside of workplaces in Australia, the rate of reporting incidents to police is already low. The severity of each experience is determined by the victim/survivor. Having these reporting steps and ongoing investigations in a workplace can be socially distressing for a victim. Providing a counselling or therapy session for those who are victims or witnesses to the harassment is recommended as a key stage in the reporting.
On a state level the NSW Government introduced The Sexual Assault Strategy in 2018.33 The strategy recognises that the priority areas apply differently to adults and children. A successful element of this strategy is the inclusion of the socio-ecological model; this demonstrates the significance of addressing fundamental risk factors for gender-based violence at all societal levels in order to avoid it before it begins. Starting with the implementation of curriculum-based learning for students’ awareness of body safety from a young and vulnerable age. Providing community support for victims through community led activities and support groups, focusing on women, children and LGBTQIA+ members. Despite this, there is only a brief inclusion and adaptation for Indigenous victims or Aboriginal students in the schooling implementation of body safety. Furthermore, there is little to no inclusion of mandatory university education on sexual violence outside of a one-time online module. It is critical for Australian Indigenous students to receive this content in a tailored manner. Recognising their traditions and other cultural inclusions for these community-led activities is highly recommended for the strategy’s long-term success.

Coercive control

Coercive control is a form of domestic violence that refers to the pattern of controlling and manipulative behaviours aimed at isolating victim-survivors.34 This is achieved by alienating the victim-survivor from their support system, surveillance, denying autonomy, gaslighting, limiting access to money (financial abuse), severe criticism and more.35 Coercive control is highly prevalent with an estimated 80% of women who seek help for domestic violence experiencing it.36 Women from Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds or living with a chronic illness or disability are much more likely to experience coercive control. It is a strong predictor of intimate partner homicide, with almost all homicides preceded by evidence of coercive control.37 Rates of help-seeking are often much lower among women experiencing coercive control in comparison to sexual or physical violence, highlighting the need for community awareness, frontline worker education and survivor empowerment.

Key Challenges
There are numerous challenges in identifying, assessing and supporting women experiencing coercive control. There is no consistent, universally agreed upon definition of coercive control and it is highly contextual – triggers of fear depend on the relationship and may not be apparent to the outside world.38 The nuanced and poorly defined nature of coercive control can make it difficult to delineate from voluntary choices in a relationship in some circumstances. For example, one individual controlling the finances of a household may represent coercive control in one relationship and a consensual position between partners in another. The nature of coercive control means that victim-survivors may minimise, not recognise or be discouraged from reporting abuse, which presents barriers to receiving assistance individually and an underestimation of prevalence nationally. Patriarchal values and power structures contribute with prevailing gender norms in many cultures reinforcing dominant, assertive and controlling male behaviour in personal relationships. Marginalised communities, such as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and culturally and linguistically diverse communities, people living with a disability or chronic illness are disproportionately affected and often face additional barriers in seeking help. Limited community awareness can lead to victim blaming practices, which further discourages victim-survivors from seeking help.

Analysis of Interventions
Community awareness campaigns: Current community awareness interventions in Australia include the ‘See the Signs’ campaign by the South Australian government, featuring on social media and bus shelters highlighting the ‘red flags’ associated with coercive control. In Queensland, the Lady Musgrave Trust partnered with Small Steps for Hannah to produce an interactive film that invites the viewer to spot the subtle signs of coercive control, informed by the lived experience of victim-survivors of coercive control. Internationally, the ‘Not Model’s Own’ campaign by non-government organisation Women’s Aid in the UK is another awareness campaign that shows a model in a shoot, with hair, makeup and outfits all chosen ‘by model’s partner’ to highlight how coercive control impact all aspects of a woman’s life and underlines it is as serious as physical abuse. All campaigns include information on where to seek help for men and women. They are all clever ways to highlight the insidious and pervasive nature of coercive control and raise community awareness, however concerns have been raised about unintended impacts, such as defensive backlash reactions from men who repeatedly see abusive men portrayed as perpetrators on screen and do not identify with their behaviour.39 The ‘good men bad men’ dichotomy in some campaigns can also be counterproductive as it reinforces chivalrous forms of masculinity and fails to recognise the role of wider systemic masculine behaviours of dominance and power.40 The benefits of raising community awareness and avenues to seek help outweigh any potential flare in coercive control and violence and this issue reflects the problem at-large, reflecting the need for greater education among men on how to be constructive allies.

Frontline worker education and survivor empowerment programs: Mandatory frontline responder education (e.g. social workers, police officers, family court judges, disability support workers) is crucial in assisting the recognition of this subtle form of interpersonal violence. The National Indigenous Australians Agency (NIAA), as part of Closing the Gap, is developing a nationally coordinated approach to education and training for family and domestic violence frontline workers, including funding a training package for legal practitioners on coercive control. The eSafety government organisation has a free professional development platform online to train frontline workers on recognising and responding to technology-facilitated coercive control, which is increasingly prevalent. The NSW Aging and Disability Commission has created an online training module for staff and volunteers who work with clients living with a disability to identify and respond to coercive control and emotional abuse. The MATE (Motivating Action Through Empowerment) program, run through Griffith University, is a violence prevention program aimed at government and non-government organisations that teaches about the role of harmful gender stereotypes and wider gender inequality in domestic violence and empowers employees and volunteers on how to be a respectful, proactive bystander when responding to sexism and domestic violence.41 Increasing awareness and capabilities among those who work directly with victim-survivors and broadly within the community is essential to recognise and intervene in coercive control. Indirectly, this will assist in empowering women to recognise abuse and understand their options. Engaging men as effective allies against coercive control requires encouraging self-recognition of male privilege and harmful gender norms, listening to women and engaging in dialogue, supporting women to lead the decision-making process, developing trust and responding to constructive feedback from women. Education initiatives must work this into their programs delicately to make this expectation the norm. Expanding education initiatives to high schools and universities is essential and should be mandatory to shift culture, both now and into the future.

Coercive control victim-survivor empowerment programs are scattered and support services require more focus at a national, state and local level, particularly for at-risk groups such as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander or culturally and linguistically diverse communities. Emergency housing and specialist domestic violence support services are overburdened and need increased funding and capacity. It is difficult for victim-survivors to recognise coercive control as a form of abuse or to be aware of support services and legal options. Victim-survivor empowerment programs should be standardised and integrated into regional and metropolitan domestic violence services to increase access for all, with a need for increasing funding and resourcing for support services to be able to deliver these interventions effectively.

Criminalisation of coercive control: The criminalisation of coercive control is a hotly debated area of intervention in Australia that overshadows the desperate need for increased funding and capacity-building among support services. Supporters argue that it allows the state to address a destructive and poorly recognised form of domestic violence that may facilitate earlier intervention and emphasises the unique and harmful impact coercive control has on a victim-survivor. By punishing the perpetrator, it sends a message to the community that coercive control is not acceptable and will not be tolerated, and may complement education and awareness programs.42 Critics argue that coercive control is difficult to define and therefore risks criminal sanction of behaviours that do not strictly indicate coercive control. It may criminalise relationship behaviours that are consensual and socially accepted in some groups. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander advocacy groups have particular concerns that criminalising coercive control increases the ways in which Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people may become involved in a criminal legal system that already disproportionately affects them. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander victim-survivors are at risk of being misidentified as having committed domestic violence by the legal system and this is reinforced by individual biases and ongoing systemic racism of policing.42 There is no definitive evidence that criminalising coercive control provides benefit and should be addressed through culturally safe domestic violence education and community awareness, frontline worker education and empowerment training for victim-survivors.

Forced Marriage and Female Genital Mutilation

Forced marriage is a form of GBV and considered a human rights issue that predominantly affects women and girls, globally and in Australia.43 Australian law defines forced marriage as a situation where an adult (18 years of age or over) is forced, coerced, or deceived into marrying another person against their will.44 Forced marriage has been criminalised in Australia since 2013 under the Commonwealth Criminal Code Act 1995,45 however the illegal nature of forced marriage and underreporting by participants due to fear of incriminating family members has consequently impacted the ability to accurately measure the burden and prevalence of the issue in Australia.45 Despite this, the Australian Federal Police reported 116 case referrals for forced marriage between 2013 and 2016, and the National Children’s and Youth Law Centre 2013 research estimated that over 50% of Australian Government and non-Government respondents (N=91) had encountered children at risk of forced marriage, leading to over 250 cases of forced marriage encounters expected.45 This disparity in reporting and limited availability of other prevalence statistics reinforces the hidden nature of forced marriage and difficulties in identifying and intervening experiences of forced marriage for women and girls.
Female genital mutilation (FGM) is similarly secretive in nature and chronically underreported in Australia because it is illegal and widely condemned. FGM in Australia is also reported to affect girls from diverse backgrounds, including those from African, Middle Eastern, and Asian origins.46 FGM is defined as the practice of partial or complete removal of the external genitalia of girls in the belief that this will preserve their purity.47 The Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) estimated in 2019 that 53,000 women and girls born overseas but currently living in Australia had been victims of GBV.48 Additionally, the AIHW estimates that rates of migration to Australia from countries that are known to practice FGM are increasing, therefore it is also expected that rates of women and girl victims of FGM in Australia will also increase.48 However, there is little to no data on rates of FGM occurring in Australia.48 The use of control, abuse, and/or exploitation to force someone into marrying against their will or undergoing FGM is what defines these acts as human rights abuses and forms of GBV. Furthermore, forced marriage is known to put women and girls at higher risk of experiencing other forms of domestic violence and rape,49 and GBV is associated with many negative adverse obstetric complications and can cause serious and long-term physical and psychosocial impacts, including death.47

Key challenges
Factors that contribute to the prevalence of forced marriage and FGM in Australia surround the background of families and victims, lack of awareness and education, and issues of gender inequality and discrimination. Research on both forced marriage and FGM in Australia suggest that these practices are associated with families from socially conservative backgrounds who have a strong commitment to tradition.45 Additionally, culture and tradition can pressure families into upholding cultural norms to maintain family honour, thereby forcing women and girls to undergo FGM or enter forced marriages.45,46 Culture and tradition are also important factors behind the fundamental gender inequality and discrimination disparities that lead to forced marriage and FGM. Social expectations and unequal power dynamics, particularly within communities steeped in male dominated traditions, use coercion and subordination as a means to control girls and women and reinforce traditional gender roles.50 Beyond culture, tradition, and gender inequality, another key factor contributing to the continuance of forced marriages and FGM occurrences is a lack of awareness and education. Women and girls who are not aware of their individual rights or available support services, or who do not have access to higher levels of education are more at risk of finding themselves the victims of forced marriage and FGM as they are more vulnerable and less likely to seek help.51 Culture and traditional, gender inequality, and awareness and education are all key factors that contribute to GBV and present a number of multifaceted challenges when trying to minimise the risk and occurrence of forced marriage and FGM.

Analysis of Interventions
The National Action Plan to Combat Human Trafficking and Slavery (2015-2019): The Australian Government criminalised forced marriage in 2013 and created the National Action Plan to Combat Forced Marriage in 2015 with a 5 year action plan that includes a whole of government approach to prevent, support, and enforce legal measures against forced marriage.52 Beyond strengthening legal frameworks, the action plan has been praised for acknowledging the multi-sectoral nature of forced marriage and has increased collaboration between NGOs, community organisations, and other government agencies.52 However, the Action Plan has been criticised for its lack of quantifiable targets and timeframes which impacts upon the plans ability to measure progress and ensure accountability.52 Furthermore, the Action Plan was not adequately funded or resourced affecting the implementation of activities.52 In order for Australia to improve its Action Plan, it is recommended that Australia establish a specialised unit for forced marriage with dedicated funding and resourcing to ensure responses to the issue are coordinated and effective. Inspiration for this approach can be drawn from the effectiveness of similar support services demonstrated by the UK’s Forced Marriage Unit.53,54

The National Education Toolkit on FGM: In collaboration with community organisations, educators, and health professionals, the Australian Government created an education toolkit on FGM designed to raise awareness and education, and provide support to professionals for identifying and responding to cases of FGM.55 The toolkit is useful in providing resources and factsheets on guidelines and legal frameworks, types of FGM, cultural considerations, and advice in identifying at-risk individuals and response guidelines for appropriate care and support measures.56 The toolkit is intended to be readily available for healthcare professionals, community workers, educators, and other relevant stakeholders, however the effectiveness is limited by its limited dissemination to date.56 To improve the availability, and therefore effectiveness, of the National Education Toolkit, the Australian Government should look to create translated version of the toolkit into languages of commonly at-risk communities in Australia. This approach was effective in improving the accessibility of Norway’s FGM toolkit.57 Additionally, Australia should look to develop targeted training programs on FGM to accompany the toolkit for specific sectors, such as the healthcare sector and other NGO support organisations. The United Kingdom has seen notable improvements in the nation’s ability to understand and respond to FGM cases after implementing training alongside their education toolkit.58

Recommendations

GBV against women and girls is a national problem in Australia. Domestic violence, sexual harassment and assault, intimate partner violence, coercive control, forced marriages, and female genital mutilation all contribute to the ongoing prevalence of GBV. When evaluating the current initiatives in place for each of these types of GBV, it is clear that improvements within the current programmes would be beneficial. Incorporating a variety of recommendations suggested throughout this report would improve the areas of concern within the mentioned initiatives. The incorporation of education and awareness beginning at the community level and progressing to the state and national levels would ensure that the gravity of GBV against women and children is recognised. Particularly, education and knowledge in medical facilities and hospitals in relation to signs and symptoms of domestic violence, sexual assault, recongising coercive behaviours and at-risk females for genital mutilation. Providing awareness to women and girls who face the hardships of being victims of GBV is highly recommended for all initiatives. Ensuring people are aware of the services available for assistance, medical attention and resources and how to access these within communities. Recognising the statistics mentioned earlier in relation to victims reporting sexual assault incidences as early as ten years old and years after it occurred, this encourages the recommendation of educating students about their bodily safety and how to report those experiences from a young age. Each of these recommendations emphasises the need to acknowledge Australia’s cultural diversity and the breadth of customs and sensitivities to be aware of while implementing initiatives. Adopting methods to ensure that all members of each community are involved, heard, and supported is a constant recommendation. Within Australia, the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population has the highest incidence of sexual assault and domestic violence and it is essential to ensure that this is recognised and integrated in all programs in Australia. Overall, it is critical that each member of the Australian population feels safe, supported and has adequate resources available to them to report forms of GBV. Supporting victims, promoting reporting, providing access to mental health care, raising awareness of the prevalence of GBV in society, and acknowledging that someone in your life may have or may experience GBV are all critical in creating a safer world for women and children.

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